Antisthenes

(Greek: Ἀντισθένης; c. 445 BCE – c. 365 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side of Socrates' teachings, advocating an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of Cynic philosophy.

Life

Antisthenes was born c. 445 BCE and was the son of Antisthenes, an Athenian. His mother was a Thracian. In his youth he fought at Tanagra (426 BCE), and was a disciple first of Gorgias, and then of Socrates, at whose death he was present.[He never forgave his master's persecutors, and is even said to have been instrumental in procuring their punishment. He survived the Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE), as he is reported to have compared the victory of the Thebans to a set of schoolboys beating their master. Although one source tells us that he died at the age of 70, he was apparently still alive in 366 BCE, and he must have been nearer to 80 years old when he died at Athens, c. 365 BCE. He is said to have lectured at the Cynosarges, a gymnasium for the use of Athenians born of foreign mothers, near the temple of Hercules. Diogenes Laërtius says that his works filled ten volumes, but of these, only fragments remain. His favourite style seems to have been dialogues, some of them being vehement attacks on his contemporaries, as on Alcibiades in the second of his two works entitled Cyrus, on Gorgias in his Archelaus and on Plato in his Satho. His style was pure and elegant, and Theopompus even said that Plato stole from him many of his thoughts. However, Cicero, after reading some works by Antisthenes, called him "a man more intelligent than learned" (Latin: homo acutus magis quam eruditus). He possessed considerable powers of wit and sarcasm, and was fond of playing upon words; saying, for instance, that he would rather fall among crows (korakes) than flatterers (kolakes), for the one devour the dead, but the other the living. Two declamations have survived, named Ajax and Odysseus, which are purely rhetorical.

Philosophy
Antisthenes was a pupil of Socrates, from whom he imbibed the fundamental ethical precept that virtue, not pleasure, is the end of existence. Everything that the wise person does, Antisthenes said, conforms to perfect virtue, and pleasure is not only unnecessary, but a positive evil. He is reported to have held pain  and even ill-repute (Greek: ἀδοξία) to be blessings, and said that "I'd rather be mad than feel pleasure." It is, however, probable that he did not consider all pleasure worthless, but only that which results from the gratification of sensual or artificial desires, for we find him praising the pleasures which spring "from out of one's soul," and the enjoyments of a wisely chosen friendship. The supreme good he placed in a life lived according to virtue, – virtue consisting in action, which when obtained is never lost, and exempts the wise person from error. It is closely connected with reason, but to enable it to develop itself in action, and to be sufficient for happiness, it requires the aid of Socratic strength (Greek: Σωκρατικὴ ἱσχύς).

PhysicsHis work on Natural Philosophy (the Physicus) contained a theory of the nature of the gods, in which he argued that there were many gods believed in by the people, but only one natural God.[19] He also said that God resembles nothing on earth, and therefore could not be understood from any representation.[20]

LogicIn logic, Antisthenes was troubled by the problem of universals. As a proper nominalist, he held that definition and predication are either false or tautological, since we can only say that every individual is what it is, and can give no more than a description of its qualities, e. g. that silver is like tin in colour.[21] Thus he disbelieved the Platonic system of Ideas. "A horse," said Antisthenes, "I can see, but horsehood I cannot see."[22] Definition is merely a circuitous method of stating an identity: "a tree is a vegetable growth" is logically no more than "a tree is a tree."

Antisthenes and the Cynics 

In later times, Antisthenes came to be seen as the founder of the Cynics, but it is by no means certain that he would have recognized the term. Aristotle, writing a generation later refers several times to Antisthenes and his followers "the Antistheneans," but makes no reference to Cynicism. There are many later tales about the infamous Cynic Diogenes of Sinope dogging Antisthenes' footsteps and becoming his faithful hound, but it is no means certain that the two men ever met. Some scholars, drawing on the discovery of defaced coins from Sinope dating from the period 350-340 BCE, believe that Diogenes only moved to Athens after the death of Antisthenes, and it has been argued that the stories linking Antisthenes to Diogenes were invented by the Stoics in a later period in order to provide a succession linking Socrates to Zeno, via Antisthenes, Diogenes, and Crates. These tales were important to the Stoics for establishing a chain of teaching that ran from Socrates to Zeno. Others argue that the evidence from the coins is weak, and thus Diogenes could have moved to Athens well before 340 BCE. It is also possible that Diogenes visited Athens and Antisthenes before his exile, and returned to Sinope.

Antisthenes certainly adopted a rigorous ascetic lifestyle, and he developed many of the principles of Cynic philosophy which became an inspiration for Diogenes and later Cynics. It was said that he had laid the foundations of the city which they afterwards built.

Bibliography

# Branham, R. Bracht; Cazé, Marie-Odile Goulet, eds (1996). The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. Berkeley: University of California Press.
# Guthrie, William Keith Chambers (1969). The Fifth-Century Enlightenment. A History of Greek Philosophy. 3. London: Cambridge University Press.
# Navia, Luis E. (2001). Antisthenes of Athens: Setting the World Aright. Contributions in philosophy. 80. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31672-4.
# Navia, Luis E. (1996). Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
# Navia, Luis E. (1995). The Philosophy of Cynicism An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
# Rankin, H.D. (1986). Anthisthenes Sokratikos. Amsterdam: A.M. Hakkert. ISBN 9-025-60896-5.
# Rankin, H.D. (1983). Sophists, Socratics, and Cynics. London: Croom Helm.
# Sayre, Farrand (1948). "Antisthenes the Socratic". The Classical Journal 43: 237–244.